Journal of Intellectual Disability - Diagnosis and Treatment
Journal of Intellectual Disability - Diagnosis and Treatment Co-Editor-in-Chief: Wenn Barnabas Lawson (Australia) Editor's Profile Co-Editor-in-Chief: Lori Ann Dotson (USA) Editor's Profile Abbreviated key title: J. Intellect. Disabl. Diagn. Treat. ISSN (online): 2292-2598 Published by: Lifescience Global Publication Starting: August 2013 Periodicity: 4 times per year Months: March, June, September, December For further information contact us here Indexed and Abstracted in Index Copernicus International, Google Scholar, Directory of Research Journals Indexing, EZB Nutzeranfragen, HEC Journal Recognition System, Scilit, OpenAIRE | EXPLORE, OCLC (WorldCat), IJIFACTOR INDEXING, CNKI, OAJI, ASCI, Embase Scope and Topics of the Journal The journal aims to describe the research work on Intellectual Disability Diagnosis and Treatment in children and adults. It covers not just the technical aspects of the procedures in prenatal, newborn, and postnatal screening, but also the impact which the process of testing and treatment has on individuals, parents, families, and public health in general. The journal seeks to publish but is not restricted to, Genetic Intellectual Disability Syndromes, using a range of approaches from medicine, psychiatry, psychology, pharmacy, biology, epidemiology, bioinformatics, biopharmaceutical to association and population studies as well as sociological, ethical, philosophical, legal and quality control issues with the ultimate goal of advancing the knowledge on the diagnosis, prevention, and treatment of the Intellectual Disabilities. The journal publishes original research articles, review articles, case reports, and short communications(Letter article). Subject area: Medicine: Neurology (clinical), Psychiatry and Mental Health Psychology: Developmental and Educational Psychology Neuroscience: Neurology Psychology: Applied Psychology Intellectual Disability (Diagnosis and Treatment) Clinical Neurology (Medicine) Psychiatry and Mental Health (Medicine) Social and Health Issues of Intellectually Disabled Persons Audience The journal is addressed to both practicing professionals and researchers in the field of neuroscience with special reference to intellectual disabilities. The journal is useful reading for professionals in academia, former researchers, and Ph.D. students interested in the results of the latest discoveries in this field.
Knowledge and Awareness of the Diagnostic Process and Access to Services for Children with Autism Spectrum Disorders among Professionals and Community Members in Two Countries
The study examines autism awareness in two countries, focusing on knowledge of the diagnostic process and support for children and their families. 1,618 participants /1,052 - Bulgaria and 566 - Greece/ were provided with an online survey that contained statements about the most important reasons why parents seek professional help, the prognosis of the disorders, and the inclusion process. The results show that participants from both countries report stereotyped and other ritualistic behaviors, social dysfunctions, and speech and language dysfunctions as significant reasons for parents to consult professionals about their children. Participants from Bulgaria placed greater importance on the first two characteristics. The participants also responded relatively positively to the statement that children with autism can grow up to live independent lives, have jobs, income, and families, and even more supported the statement that “Early interventions and therapies can lead to significant improvements in the social and communication skills of children with autism”, with participants from Bulgaria showing more support for both statements.
Mapping the Knowledge Structure of Students with Intellectual Disabilities Through SOLO Taxonomy-Based Automated Assessment
Background: Mapping students with intellectual disabilities' (ID) knowledge structures is a critical challenge in inclusive education. Traditional assessments often fail to capture the nuanced cognitive development of this population. This limits teachers’ ability to design differentiated interventions. This study aimed to develop and test a SOLO Taxonomy-based Automated Assessment (SOLO-AA) system tailored for students with mild to moderate intellectual disabilities. It also examines its effectiveness in mapping hierarchical knowledge structures. Method: An exploratory sequential mixed-methods design was used. In the qualitative phase, in-depth interviews with six special education teachers and analysis of lesson plans revealed linguistic limitations, fragmented knowledge, and a reliance on visual and contextual learning. These findings informed the design of a visual-interactive assessment system. In the quantitative phase, SOLO-AA was piloted with 30 students aged 11-15 years. Content validity was evaluated using Aiken’s V. Reliability was assessed with KR-20 and Rasch modeling. Result: Content validity reached a score of 0.89 (highly valid), and KR-20 reliability was 0.82 (highly reliable). Most students were at the unistructural (36%) and multi-structural (30%) levels. Fewer reached the relational level (15%), and only 3% reached the extended abstract level. Rasch analysis showed person reliability of 0.79 and item reliability of 0.91. This indicates instrument stability and appropriate item difficulty for this population. Visual-based items were significantly easier. Tasks requiring concept integration were more challenging. Conclusion: SOLO-AA provides a fine-grained mapping of students’ knowledge structures, moving beyond binary judgments. It helps teachers design differentiated instruction, improves diagnostic precision, and offers a scalable AI-assisted solution for inclusive education. This study links SOLO-AA with adaptive automated assessments and shows its utility in special education. Future research should include diverse ID populations, employ longitudinal designs, and integrate culturally relevant content to deepen contextual meaning.
Effectiveness of University-Based Educational Interventions on Adaptive Functioning and Employment Readiness of Students with Mild Intellectual Disability
Background: Inclusive higher education is increasingly recognized as a pathway for enhancing functional independence and employment outcomes among students with mild intellectual disability. University-based educational interventions aim to support adaptive functioning (AF) and employment readiness (ER); however, empirical evidence regarding their effectiveness in Nigerian universities remains limited. Objective: This study examined the perceived impact of university-based educational interventions on AF and ER among students with mild intellectual disability and explored whether these domains jointly predict overall intervention effectiveness. Methods: A quantitative descriptive research design was employed. Structured questionnaires were administered to 92 students; 84 were completed and returned, yielding a response rate of 91.3%. Among respondents, 46 were male, and 38 were female; all were included in the analyses. Descriptive statistics summarized perceived outcomes of interventions, while multiple regression analysis examined the predictive relationship between AF, ER, and overall intervention effectiveness. Results: The findings indicated that university-based interventions were associated with perceived improvements in communication, problem-solving, social interaction, self-care, task completion, and engagement with career support services. The independent t-test analyses showed no significant differences in overall AF by gender or ER by age, though minor item-level variations were observed. While AF and ER individually reflected positive outcomes, their combined effect did not significantly predict overall intervention effectiveness, suggesting that additional contextual and programmatic factors influence perceptions of success. Conclusion: University-based educational interventions contribute meaningfully to the development of adaptive and employment-related skills among students with mild intellectual disability. The findings highlight the importance of a holistic approach that integrates academic instruction, vocational preparation, social support, and institutional resources to enhance overall program effectiveness. Overall, students perceive these interventions as beneficial in promoting independence, practical skills, and workforce preparedness.
Educational Management of Inclusive Support Systems for Adolescents with Intellectual Disabilities: Implication for Early Diagnosis and Intervention Fidelity
This research investigated how educational management influences early identification and the consistent implementation of inclusive interventions for adolescents with intellectual disabilities (IDs) in Nigerian secondary schools. Employing a descriptive research design, the study sampled 377 participants, including school administrators, special educators, and classroom teachers from both public and private schools in Cross River State, using a stratified sampling approach. Data were gathered via a structured questionnaire and analyzed through descriptive statistical methods. The results indicated that educational management effectively facilitates early diagnosis by providing timely screening, allocating necessary resources, organizing staff training, promoting collaborative practices, communicating policies clearly, and systematically monitoring identification data. In contrast, the study revealed that the fidelity of intervention implementation was generally low. Key inclusive strategies, such as individualized education plans, differentiated instruction, functional life-skills training, assistive technology utilization, and classroom modifications, were applied inconsistently. Moreover, managerial practices were found to have limited impact on intervention fidelity, reflecting insufficient supervision, guidance, resource allocation, and feedback processes. These findings highlight a gap between inclusive education policy and its execution at the classroom level. The study emphasizes the need for strengthened professional development, enhanced monitoring, systematic supervision, and collaborative structures to improve the consistency of interventions and promote positive developmental outcomes for adolescents with intellectual disabilities.
Effectiveness of Interventions in Enhancing the Mental Health of Persons with Intellectual Disability: A Systematic Literature Review
Introduction: Mental health conditions are significantly more prevalent among individuals with intellectual disability (ID) compared to the general population, yet tailored interventions remain limited. This review synthesises recent evidence on the effectiveness of interventions designed to enhance mental health outcomes in this group, focusing on approaches adapted to their cognitive and social needs. Methods: A systematic literature review was conducted following PRISMA guidelines. PubMed, PsycINFO, Web of Science, Scopus, and the Cochrane Library were searched for studies published between 2020 and 2025. A total of 901 records were screened, with 12 empirical studies meeting the inclusion criteria. Eligible studies evaluated interventions targeting mental health outcomes among individuals with ID using quantitative research designs. Findings: Interventions identified included cognitive-behavioural therapy, mindfulness-based practices, physical and cognitive training, integrative healthcare, peer mentoring, psychoeducation, and technology-assisted approaches. Adapted cognitive-behavioural and mindfulness interventions improved emotional regulation, coping, and quality of life. Physical activity programmes and peer mentoring fostered resilience and social inclusion, while technology-assisted therapies showed feasibility and acceptability. However, outcomes varied according to participant characteristics, delivery methods, and contextual factors. Notably, gaps remain in standardising outcome measures and assessing long-term sustainability. Conclusion: Evidence suggests that multidisciplinary, individualised, and community-based interventions hold promise for enhancing mental health outcomes in people with ID. Collaborative approaches involving healthcare providers, families, and individuals are essential. Future research should prioritise scalable interventions, professional training, and policy integration to ensure equitable, evidence-based support for this underserved population.
Caregivers' Compliance with COVID-19 Guidelines: A Study of Caregivers of Children with Intellectual Disability in Clinical Support and Therapeutic Management Home/School, Lagos, Nigeria
The COVID-19 pandemic presented serious challenges to special education systems, particularly for caregivers responsible for persons with Intellectual Disabilities (ID). Because of the low intellectual functioning, most individuals with ID lack the capacity to follow basic rules that can enhance their well-being; hence, they depend on caregivers for their everyday living. This study examined how caregivers' attitudes and hazard incentives influenced their adherence to COVID-19 safety protocols in Childcare and Treatment Home/School Home/School, Akoka, Lagos, Nigeria. 159 caregivers participated in the study, employing a correlational survey approach. Data were collected using a researcher-designed instrument titled “Caregivers' Attitude, Hazard Incentive, and COVID-19 Precautionary Compliance Questionnaire” (CAHICPCQ). The collected data were analysed using simple linear regression and multiple linear regression with dummy-coded hazard incentive variables. Results revealed that caregivers’ attitude significantly predict compliance with COVID-19 precautionary measures, F(1,157) = 48.99, R = .48, R² = .24, β = .49, p < .001. Hazard incentives also significantly influenced compliance at the model level, F(7,151) = 2.84, R² = .116, adjusted R² = .075, p = .008; however, among the individual incentive variables, only personal sanitiser availability was a significant positive predictor (B = 6.60, β = .177, p = .027). These findings emphasize the necessity of attitudinal training and institutional incentives to improve caregivers' compliance, especially during public health emergencies. The study suggests that special education stakeholders should prioritize behavioural support programs and structured hazard incentive systems to protect caregivers and children with ID.
Interactive Effect of Gender and Self-Efficacy on Mathematics Achievement among Students with Mild Intellectual Disability in Calabar Education in Cross River State of Nigeria: Implications for Inclusive Education
Background: Due to the poor academic achievement of identified SS1 students with mild intellectual disabilities in public secondary schools, this research investigates how gender interacts with self-efficacy regarding mathematics achievement. The goal is to improve these students' academic achievement in mathematics. Studies on the interactive effects of gender and self-efficacy on mathematics achievement in Nigeria are scarce. Objective: This paper examines the interactive effect of gender and self-efficacy on the mathematics achievement of SS1 students with mild intellectual disabilities in the Calabar Education Zone of Cross River State, Nigeria. Methodology: An ex-post facto design was adopted. The study population consisted of 4,031 Senior Secondary (SSI) students with mild intellectual disabilities in the Calabar Education Zone of Cross River State, Nigeria. A sample of 538 students was selected (286 males and 252 females). The instruments used for data collection were the Mathematics Achievement Test (MAT) and a Mathematics Self-Efficacy Rating Scale Questionnaire (MSERSQ). The reliability coefficients were strong (KR-20 = 0.83, Cronbach's Alpha = 0.79) for the MAT and MSERSQ, respectively, indicating good reliability. The study was guided by two research hypotheses. Descriptive statistics were used to describe the collected data, while analysis of covariance and Pearson product-moment correlation were used to test the first hypothesis, and a two-way ANOVA was used to test the second hypothesis. Results: The analysis using Pearson product-moment correlation indicated a significant positive correlation between self-efficacy and mathematics achievement among students with mild intellectual disabilities (r = 0.656, n = 538, p < 0.05). The results of the two-way ANOVA indicated a statistically significant interaction between gender and self-efficacy on mathematics achievement (F = 13.670, n = 538, p = 0.000). This interaction suggests that the influence of self-efficacy on mathematics achievement varies by gender. Specifically, male students (mean = 31.818, SD = 8.320) tended to achieve higher mathematics scores than female students (mean = 27.389, SD = 7.736) did, given their self-efficacy levels. Conclusion: The study found a significant positive relationship between self-efficacy and mathematics achievement, and an interaction between gender and self-efficacy among students with mild intellectual disabilities. Unique Contribution: This paper highlights the unique influence of self-efficacy and the interactive effect of gender and self-efficacy on students with mild intellectual disabilities' mathematics achievement. Recommendation: The government should ensure that sufficient qualified counselors are recruited to help raise students' self-efficacy and guide them accordingly.
Parent-School Collaboration and Its Role in Facilitating Research Participation of Students with mild Intellectual Disability: A Cross-Sectional Survey
Introduction: Inclusive education emphasizes the need for students with intellectual disabilities (ID) to participate actively in all academic activities, including research. Despite this ideal, students with mild intellectual disabilities (MID) often face obstacles that hinder their engagement, revealing significant gaps in equal access to educational opportunities. Previous studies suggest that collaborative partnerships between parents and schools can play a vital role in promoting meaningful participation; however, there is limited empirical evidence on the effectiveness of these collaborations in supporting research engagement among students with MID. Purpose of the Study: The primary objective of this study was to investigate the impact of parent-school collaboration on research participation among students with MID. In particular, the study sought to determine how teacher involvement, parental engagement, school-home communication, and parental provisions collectively and individually predict students' participation in research activities. Methods: This research employed a cross-sectional survey approach, gathering data from 437 students with mild intellectual disabilities enrolled in public schools in Cross River State, Nigeria. A quantitatively validated questionnaire was used to ensure the reliability and validity of the data collected. Analyses included descriptive statistics, one-sample t-tests, and multiple regression to examine the relationships and predictive power of the identified factors. Findings: The findings revealed that students with MID generally demonstrated low levels of participation in research activities. Collectively, parental engagement, teacher involvement, school-home communication, and parental provisions influenced research participation. Among these factors, teacher involvement was the most influential predictor, followed by parental engagement and provisions, whereas school-home communication contributed the least. Conclusions: The study highlights the vital role that both educators and parents play in promoting research participation among students with MID. The results have implications that extend beyond the local context, highlighting global challenges in ensuring equitable academic opportunities for students with intellectual disabilities and underscoring the importance of promoting inclusive education practices. Implications: From a theoretical perspective, the study enhances existing models of inclusive education by clarifying the relative impact of school- and family-based support on research participation. Practically, it highlights the need for targeted teacher training, structured programs to promote parental involvement, and enhanced school-home communication channels. Policymakers are encouraged to adopt inclusive research participation guidelines to cultivate supportive learning environments, ultimately enhancing students' academic development, engagement, and long-term outcomes.
Doodly-Based Multimedia Instructional Intervention and Academic Achievement of Undergraduate Students with Learning Disabilities in Educational Technology
Traditional instructional strategies may not provide the essential elements necessary for students with learning disabilities (LDs) to learn effectively. This ultimately leads to decreased motivation and underachievement. Since Doodly-based multimedia has been scientifically proven to enhance learning outcomes, one wonders if such effects could be replicated on the academic achievement of students with LDs. The study explored the impact of Doodly-based multimedia instructional intervention (DBMII) on the academic achievement of undergraduate students with LDs in Educational Technology (EdTech). The research employed a 2x2 quasi-experimental factorial design, with pre- and post-tests to explore the effects of DBMII. The census sampling technique was used to draw a sample of 38 (22 males and 16 females) third-year special education students with confirmed cases of LDs. The data collection used the Educational Technology Achievement Test (ETAT). The validation was conducted by three specialists and had a reliability coefficient of 0.82 using the Kuder-Richardson 21 formula, before it was administered, marked, scored, coded, and analyzed. Analysis of Co-Variance (ANCOVA) was employed to test the hypotheses, setting the significance threshold at the 0.05 level. The findings revealed a statistically significant beneficial effect of DBMII on the academic achievement of undergraduate students with learning disabilities in EdTech. Also, gender did not significantly influence educational achievement, and no interaction effects between gender and Doodly-based multimedia instructions were observed. It was concluded that Doodly-based multimedia instructions have a statistically significant beneficial effect on the academic achievement of undergraduate students with LDs in EdTech, without any significant influence of gender.
Inclusion of Students with Borderline Cognitive Impairment in Secondary Schools: Challenges and Coping Strategies
Background: The challenges of managing students with borderline cognitive impairment in an inclusive classroom are enormous. Therefore, there is a need for appropriate coping strategies to foster the successful inclusion of students with borderline cognitive impairment in the day-to-day classroom activities. Aim: This study examines the challenges facing the inclusion of students with Borderline Cognitive Impairment (BCI) and the coping strategies often adopted by these students in the Ogoja Education Zone of Cross River State, Nigeria. Method: The study adopted a descriptive survey design. One hundred and sixty-nine students with BCI in twenty (2) regular secondary schools were selected, using the purposive sampling technique. The instrument for the study was a questionnaire titled "Academic Challenges and Coping Mechanism of Students with Borderline Cognitive Impairment Questionnaire (ACCMSBCIQ 0.67). Results: The study revealed that inclusive education for students with BCI at the secondary school level in the Ogoja Education Zone of Cross River State is hindered by a complex web of interconnected challenges. The study also revealed that students with BCI adopt several coping strategies to remain included in the secondary education program in the study area. Recommendation: Based on the findings of the study, the researchers recommend that the government and other stakeholders should organize adequate training on the inclusion of students with BCI for all secondary school teachers in Cross River State
Leveraging Artificial Intelligence to Enhance Inclusive Teaching for Students with Intellectual Disabilities in Nigerian Universities
Background: Artificial Intelligence (AI) offers significant opportunities for advancing inclusive teaching, particularly for students with intellectual disabilities in Nigerian universities. By leveraging AI tools, educators can help close learning gaps, boost student engagement, and promote equitable learning experiences. This study explores the extent to which lecturers use AI tools to support inclusive teaching and examines how these tools influence the academic engagement of students with intellectual disabilities. Methods: A descriptive survey design was employed, involving 600 lecturers drawn through accidental sampling from universities across Nigeria. Data were collected using a structured questionnaire that assessed the use of AI tools, lecturers’ perceptions of their effectiveness, and their impact on students’ academic engagement. Descriptive statistics (mean and standard deviation) were used to summarize the responses. At the same time, independent t-tests and multiple regression analyses were employed to test the hypotheses at the 0.05 level of significance. Results: Findings indicated that lecturers’ overall use of AI tools in inclusive teaching was low. Nevertheless, in cases where AI was applied, it was perceived to have a strong positive effect on students’ engagement. Specifically, lecturers noted improvements in students’ attention, participation, interest in learning tasks, and task completion when AI tools were integrated into instruction. Further analysis revealed that factors such as gender, teaching experience, and the type of university did not significantly affect how AI was adopted. Instead, what mattered most was how actively lecturers integrated AI tools into their teaching. This level of engagement proved to be the strongest factor linked to improved student participation and learning outcomes. Conclusions: The study highlights AI’s transformative potential in fostering inclusive education in Nigerian universities. Although current utilization remains limited, the reported benefits suggest that greater investment in lecturer training, technological infrastructure, and supportive policies could expand the role of AI in inclusive teaching. These insights contribute to global efforts toward Sustainable Development Goal 4, which emphasizes inclusive and equitable quality education for all.
Improving Mathematics Achievement and Self-Efficacy in Students with Mild Intellectual Disabilities using the 7Es Learning Strategy in Inclusive Classrooms in Calabar Education Zone of Cross River State, Nigeria
Aim: The study examined the effect of the 7Es learning strategy on Mathematics achievement and self-efficacy of students with mild intellectual disabilities in an inclusive classroom in Calabar Education Zone of Cross River State, Nigeria. The study objectives were established to provide direction and focus for this research. Two research questions were formed, which were converted to two null hypotheses. A literature review was done based on the study variables, and the research gaps were also stated. Method: The study used a 2x2 factorial design in this investigation. The design was quasi-experimental and non-randomized. The population of the study consisted of 4,031 Senior Secondary (SSII) students with mild intellectual disabilities in Calabar Education Zone of Cross River State, Nigeria, of which a sample of 200 students with mild disabilities were selected (100 students were taught using the 7Es learning strategy, while 100 were taught using the traditional approach). The data was gathered using a mathematical achievement test (MAT) and a Mathematics Self-Efficacy Rating Scale questionnaire (MSERSQ). The reliability coefficients are strong (KR-20 = 0.88, Cronbach's Alpha = 0.90) for the MAT and MSERSQ, respectively, indicating good reliability. Two research hypotheses guided the study. Descriptive statistics were used to examine the data, and Analysis of Covariance (ANCOVA) was applied to test the null hypotheses. Results: The results of the analysis using ANCOVA indicated that students with mild intellectual disabilities who received tutoring using the 7Es learning strategy outperformed those who received tutoring using the traditional approach in terms of mathematics achievement (F-ratio = 268.399, p < 0.050), with a partial eta squared of 0.577 indicating a moderate effect, and self-efficacy (F-ratio = 1261.293, p < 0.050) with a partial eta squared of 0.865 indicating a high impact. Conclusion: The study concluded that the high academic achievement and self-efficacy of students with mild intellectual disabilities depend on the practical application of the 7Es teaching technique by teachers in teaching Mathematics concepts. Recommendation: Among other recommendations, the 7Es learning strategy should be adopted into the teaching and learning of Mathematics to improve mathematics achievement and self-efficacy of learners with diverse needs. Unique Contribution: This study's key contribution was to introduce the 7Es learning strategy as an effective pedagogical tool for enhancing mathematics achievement and self-efficacy of students with diverse needs.
Effect of Artificial Intelligence (AI)-Scaffolded Planning Tools on Research Question Formulation Among Students with Mild Intellectual Disabilities: A Randomized Controlled Trial Analysis
Introduction: Students with mild intellectual disabilities often encounter significant difficulties when faced with complex academic tasks, particularly in developing research topics. These challenges are not only linked to their cognitive limitations but are also compounded by limited instructional support within learning environments. As a result, there is an increasing need for innovative strategies that can simplify learning without diluting academic standards. One promising approach is the use of artificial intelligence–based scaffolding tools, which provide learners with structured guidance to help them navigate demanding academic tasks. Purpose: This study aimed to explore how AI-supported planning tools influence students' ability to formulate research topics. Beyond this central objective, the study also examined whether differences in school type and gender affected students' performance when supported with AI scaffolding. Methods: The study adopted a pretest–posttest randomized controlled trial involving 94 students. Participants were randomly assigned to either the experimental group, which received AI-scaffolded support, or the control group, which did not receive any support. The Research Topic Quality Scale, adapted from Creswell and Clark (2018), was employed to evaluate the clarity, feasibility, and alignment of research topics generated by the students. Data analysis was conducted using ANCOVA to examine both main effects and interaction effects of the independent variables. Results: The findings revealed that students who had access to the AI-scaffolded tool performed significantly better in developing their research topics compared to those in the control group. In addition, results showed that private school students achieved higher scores than their counterparts in public schools, suggesting that resource availability played a role. Gender, however, did not emerge as a significant factor in students’ performance. No significant interaction effects were found between school type, gender, and intervention. Conclusion: The study demonstrates that AI-based scaffolding has the potential to enhance the ability of students with mild intellectual disabilities to engage with higher-order academic tasks, such as formulating research topics. While the intervention proved effective for both male and female learners, the differences observed between private and public schools highlight persistent inequalities in educational resources that still need to be addressed. Originality/Value: This research contributes to the growing body of evidence supporting the integration of artificial intelligence into inclusive education. By demonstrating that AI-driven scaffolding can enhance complex academic skills, the study underscores its value as a practical and innovative approach for promoting educational success among students with mild intellectual disabilities.
Lecturers’ Attitudes and Readiness toward Teaching Students with Intellectual Disabilities in Higher Education Institutions in Nigeria
Background: Inclusive education plays a vital role in promoting equitable learning opportunities, particularly for students with intellectual disabilities in higher education institutions. The attitudes and readiness of lecturers to adopt inclusive teaching practices are crucial to the successful implementation of inclusive policies and pedagogies. Guided by the Theory of Planned Behaviour (TPB), this study investigates how lecturers’ attitudes, perceived social expectations, and perceived behavioural control influence their readiness to teach students with intellectual disabilities in Nigerian higher education institutions. Methods: The study adopted a descriptive survey design, involving 270 lecturers selected through accidental sampling from various higher education institutions across Nigeria. Data were collected using a structured questionnaire designed to assess lecturers' attitudes, institutional expectations, and perceived control over inclusive teaching practices. Descriptive statistics, such as the mean and standard deviation, were used to analyze the data, while independent t-tests were employed to test the hypotheses at a 0.05 level of significance. Results: The findings revealed that lecturers demonstrate a moderate to high level of readiness to implement inclusive teaching. Respondents reported willingness to participate in training, adopt inclusive strategies, and manage mixed-ability classrooms. Attitudes toward inclusion were largely positive. However, challenges were noted in areas such as adapting instructional materials and using assistive technologies, indicating limitations in perceived behavioural control. Conclusions: The study affirms the relevance of the Theory of Planned Behaviour in explaining lecturers' readiness for inclusive teaching. Addressing capacity gaps through targeted training and institutional support is essential for advancing inclusive education and achieving Sustainable Development Goal 4.
Asymmetry of the Developing Brain, Structural Anomalies, and Genetic Variants in the Pathogenesis of Unilateral Spastic Cerebral Palsy (uCP), a Common Neurological Symptom in Intellectual Disability, is Discussed in the form of a Narrative Overview
Asymmetrical form and structural features of the brain can occur both as physiological hemispheric differences and as pathological left-right disparities. This review starts with findings on physiological brain development. It focuses primarily on non-physiological asymmetries between the left and right brain hemispheres and their impact on brain function, particularly motor functions. These are discussed in the context of cerebral palsy, specifically unilateral cerebral palsy, with a particular emphasis on genetic aspects. Pathogenic variants in specific genes can have diverse effects on structural brain development and, consequently, brain function. Several groups of genes must be distinguished based on their impact on the developing brain. These include variants in genes related to the coagulation system, angiogenesis, mitochondrial functions, and oxidative phosphorylation, which contribute to encephaloclastic lesions in the developing brain (e.g., periventricular or subcortical leukomalacia). These are distinct from gene variants that lead to disruptions in neuronal induction, proliferation, migration, aggregation, differentiation, and synaptic connectivity. Neurological symptoms, such as the development of spastic hemiparesis/cerebral palsy, can arise from genetically caused structural-functional disorders at both macroscopic (e.g., hemimegalencephaly) and microscopic levels (e.g., synaptic scaffolding). Additionally, disruptions in the structure and function of perineuronal networks must also be considered in this context. The ultimate goal of this review is to describe and discuss the pathways involved in the pathogenesis of unilateral cerebral palsy in a differentiated manner, with a particular focus on molecular genetic aspects.
Experiences and Challenges of Implementing the Individualized Education Plan (IEP) for Students with Learning and Intellectual Disabilities in Kuwait
This study explores the development and effectiveness of Individualized Education Programs (IEPs) in supporting students with special educational needs (SEN). Utilizing a descriptive-analytical approach, the research examines key factors influencing the implementation of IEPs, including teacher expertise, parental involvement, and institutional support. The study sample comprises special education teachers and school administrators, selected using a stratified sampling method to ensure diverse representation. Findings indicate that while IEPs play a crucial role in enhancing student learning outcomes, challenges persist in adapting the curriculum, facilitating interdisciplinary collaboration, and assessing continuous progress. The study also reveals that teachers with specialized training in inclusive education demonstrate greater confidence in designing and executing IEPs, whereas limited parental engagement and administrative constraints hinder effective implementation. The results underscore the need for comprehensive professional development programs, stronger family-school partnerships, and policy reforms to optimize IEP practices. These findings offer valuable insights for educators, policymakers, and stakeholders seeking to improve inclusive education strategies and individualized instructional planning.
Parental Age and Gender: How they Influence Knowledge and Perceptions of Inclusive Education for Children with Intellectual Disability
Background: This study investigated how parental age and gender influence their knowledge and perspectives of inclusive education for their children with intellectual disabilities (ID). This study is essential as it provides valuable insights into how parental factors, such as age and gender, can shape their knowledge, perceptions, and attitudes toward inclusive education, which will likely impact the educational experiences and outcomes for children with intellectual disabilities. Methods: Employing a cross-sectional research design, the study surveyed 96 parents, consisting of 55 males (57.3%) and 41 females (42.7%). The participants were categorised by age: under 25 (n=20, 20.8%), 25-34 (n=24, 25.0%), 35-44 (n=28, 29.2%), and 45 and above (n=24, 25.0%). Data were collected using a structured questionnaire, demonstrating a reliability coefficient of 0.88 (Cronbach's alpha). The data analysis used Multivariate Analysis of Variance (MANOVA) to assess the main and interaction effects of parental age and gender on their knowledge regarding inclusive education. Results: Tests of Between-Subject Effects indicated a significant interaction between age and gender, F (3, 88) = 5.67, p < 0.01, revealing that older female parents (M = 4.10) had higher knowledge scores than older male parents (M = 3.60). Estimated marginal means supported these findings, explicitly showing significant differences between parents aged 25-34 and 45 and above (p < 0.05). These differences are evident in pairwise comparisons, particularly in the 35–44-year-old age cohort (M = 3.95). Conclusion: The results indicate that age and gender influence parental knowledge and perceptions of inclusive education. A targeted intervention considering these factors is crucial to enhancing supportive educational environments for children with ID.
Cognitive Profiles of Mexican Elementary Education Teachers on School Inclusion of Students with Disability
This research investigated the attitudes of 99 elementary education teachers toward the inclusion of students with disabilities in schools. The present authors designed a factorial experiment with 2 (View on learning difficulties: static vs. interactionist) x 2 (Teacher approach: teaching vs. learning) x 2 (Social climate: homogeneous vs. heterogeneous) x 3 (Institutional culture: individualistic vs. delegation vs. collaborative). The orthogonal combination of these factors resulted in 24 experimental conditions ready to build the 24 experimental scenarios of this study. Each scenario described a hypothetical story about the thinking of teachers who faced a school inclusion situation. The experimental task for the participants was to read each scenario individually and then assess their level of identification with the protagonist. The results indicated two types of teacher profiles among the participants: the pre-inclusive profile, which showed a low level of identification towards the inclusive vision, and the inclusive profile, which presented a moderate level of school inclusiveness. The most relevant factors for making inclusive judgments in both groups were the diversity climate (hp2 = 0.24) and professional culture (hp2 = 0.13). However, the pre-inclusive group showed a greater affinity with school homogeneity and individual work. In contrast, the second group showed greater acceptance of diversity and collaboration in school inclusion. In this article, the present authors discuss the implications of these findings within the classroom.
Effect of School Based Cognitive behavioral Therapy on Multidimensional Level of Anxiety among Adolescents with Intellectual Disability: A Randomized Controlled Trial
Introduction: Anxiety is a common issue faced by adolescents with mild intellectual disabilities, but there's still limited research on interventions designed specifically for them. While Cognitive Behavioral Therapy (CBT) has proven effective for managing anxiety in the general population, we need to understand better how well it works for young people with intellectual disabilities. Purpose/Objectives: This study set out to explore how effective school-based CBT is at reducing different types of anxiety in adolescents with mild intellectual disabilities. It also looked at whether gender and age play a role in how well the therapy works. Methodology: We carried out a pretest-posttest randomized controlled trialstudy with 150 adolescents randomly placed into either a CBT treatment group or a control group. The anxiety measurement tool was carefully adapted to fit the cultural context and tested to ensure it was reliable. We analyzed the results using Multivariate Analysis of Covariance (MANCOVA), while accounting for anxiety levels before treatment. Results: The findings showed that CBT significantly eased symptoms across five types of anxiety: separation anxiety, social phobia, generalized anxiety, panic anxiety, and obsessive-compulsive disorder. The therapy worked equally well for both boys and girls. Most age groups responded similarly, but there was a notable difference in how separation anxiety improved, suggesting that a young person's developmental stage may affect their response to CBT. Conclusion/Implications: These results reinforce that cognitive-behavioral therapy can be effective for adolescents with mild intellectual disabilities. They also highlight the importance of adjusting therapy to fit different developmental stages. Overall, the study encourages incorporating CBT into school mental health programs with tailored support to best meet the needs of this vulnerable group, ensuring that treatment is both practical and fair for all.
The Role of Psychological and Pedagogical Training of Educators in Establishing Effective Communication with Veterans with Intellectual Disabilities
The psychological and pedagogical training of teachers to interact with veterans with signs of intellectual disabilities was identified as a critical factor in post-war social integration. The study aimed to assess the influence of educator preparedness on the quality of communication with veterans in adaptive educational settings. A mixed-methods approach was applied, including surveys, content analysis, pedagogical observations, and correlation analysis. The findings indicated a mismatch between the self-assessed readiness of teachers and veterans' perception of their interactions. A positive relationship was established between educator preparedness and the satisfaction level of veterans. The study contributed to the understanding of how targeted professional training may enhance communication outcomes in education involving vulnerable adult learners. Conclusions pointed to the need for modular training programs tailored to the specific needs of learners with post-traumatic cognitive features.
Poetry Therapy, Disability, and Trauma Expression: A Therapeutic-Phenomenological Perspective
This study aims to explore how individuals with disabilities express traumatic experiences through literary works from a therapeutic-phenomenological perspective. The research employs a qualitative-phenomenological method, with data collected from 45 literary works written by individuals with disabilities. The therapeutic process involved filtering, handling, and follow-up stages, involving 45 participants with disabilities. Data analysis was conducted through identification, classification, reduction, and exposition. The findings revealed varied themes: social criticism (35.5%), absurdism (17.7%), religion (13.3%), romanticism (4.4%), feminism (2.2%), and other themes (26.6%). Social criticism was the most dominant theme, followed by absurdism, religion, romanticism, feminism, and others. These works not only reflect emotional expression but also serve as a medium for critiquing discrimination and injustice experienced in society. The trauma expressed is primarily relational, such as social rejection and bullying, beyond just physical limitations. This study confirms that literary works are a vital means for individuals with disabilities to authentically voice their experiences and symbolically resist non-inclusive social systems. These findings aim to enrich interdisciplinary studies in literature, psychology, therapy, and disability studies.
Directions and Practices for Implementing Early Care for Children with Developmental Disabilities in the Ukrainian and Swedish ECEC Systems
Background: This article explores the strategies and approaches used in Ukraine and Sweden's Early Childhood Education and Care (ECEC) systems for providing early care to children with developmental disabilities. It examines the similarities and differences in policies, legislation, professional training, family involvement, resource allocation, service provision, integration vs. segregation practices, and cultural attitudes toward disability between the two countries. Methods: This study used questionnaires and surveys, analysis of learning outcomes, performance evaluation, and an expert evaluation method. Results: The authors analyze Ukrainian best practices for implementing early care for children with developmental disabilities. In the example of the Swedish system and the context of a comparative investigation of early care for children with developmental disabilities in the countries under analysis, the authors pointed out the strengths and weaknesses of both systems and distinguished the similarities and differences. The theoretical study allowed the practical perspectives and critical Swedish practices that could be implemented in modern Ukrainian practices, among which the most relevant perspectives are those related to early intervention programs, individualized support plans, and fostering partnerships with community organizations and healthcare providers. Research Limitation: The experimental part of the study included a relatively small sample size (50 respondents) and was characterized by a short duration (three months). This may limit the ability to generalize the results. Conclusions: Additionally, the emphasis on inclusive curriculum and environments, as well as professional development opportunities for educators on inclusive practices, could significantly enhance modern Ukrainian practices in early care for children with developmental disabilities.
The Effectiveness of a Training Program in Equipping Teachers of Students with Intellectual Disabilities with Competencies for Implementing Transition Plans and Enhancing Their Teaching Self-Efficacy
Background: Teachers working with students who have intellectual disabilities are the pillars supporting these students throughout their educational success and are primarily responsible for implementing transition plans for them. The ability of teachers working with students who have intellectual disabilities to acquire competencies related to student transition to different stages is a primary factor that makes this transition smooth. Therefore, teaching self-efficacy plays a crucial role in teachers’ success in their assigned roles and, accordingly, implementing transition plans. Objective: The study aimed to examine the effectiveness of a training program in equipping teachers working with students who have intellectual disabilities with competencies for implementing transition plans and enhancing their self-efficacy. Methods: The study adopted the quasi-experimental approach that included one experimental group subject to pre-test and post-test measurements and a follow-up measurement to evaluate the effectiveness of the training program and its sustainable results. In this study, the independent variable was the training program, while the dependent variables were the competencies for implementing transition plans and teaching self-efficacy. The study employed the following instruments: a questionnaire on the competencies of teachers of students with intellectual disabilities for implementing transition plans (developed by the researchers), a questionnaire on teaching self-efficacy among special education teachers (developed by the researchers), and a training program (developed by the researchers). Participants: The study sample comprised (13) elementary-stage teachers working with students with intellectual disabilities. The teachers demonstrated insufficient competencies in implementing transition plans and insufficient teaching self-efficacy. Results: The study's results confirmed the effectiveness of the training program in improving teachers' competencies for implementing transition plans and teaching self-efficacy. This is indicative of the effectiveness of the activities and strategies included in the program in enhancing these competencies and skills for the teachers. Conclusions: The study at hand is one of the few that contributes to the professional development of teachers working with students with intellectual disabilities in an Egyptian environment. The study also presented two measuring instruments: one for transition competencies, another for teaching self-efficacy, and a training program for enhancing both.
Effect of Counselling Services on Parental Management of Children with Cerebral Palsy in Enugu State, Nigeria
Background: Cerebral palsy (CP) is a neurological disorder affecting movement, muscle tone, and posture. It is often caused by damage to the developing brain, usually before, during, or shortly after birth. The condition can have a significant emotional, physical, financial, and social impact on parents. This study investigated the effect of counseling services on the parental management of children with CP in Enugu State. Methods: A pre-test and post-test quasi-experimental design was adopted. A validated self-developed Parent of Cerebral Palsy Management Self-Report Scale (PCPMSS, r-0.78) was used for data collection. The Counseling Treatment Package (CTP) was used as the intervention in the study. Parents of children with Cerebral palsy were exposed to eight weeks of counseling sessions. The data collected were statistically analyzed using a pairwise t-test to measure the effectiveness of the intervention. One sample t-test was also used to test self-report intervention effectiveness and satisfaction with the intervention. Results: The results indicate that parents exposed to family counseling improved significantly in handling family-oriented challenges. Counseling intervention improved the emotional stability of parents of children with CP. Conclusion: It was recommended, among other things, that counseling services and other evidence-based interventions be provided for parents of children with CP to equip them with relevant coping skills and resources needed to support their children’s development.
Cardiovascular Disease and Mental Health in Intellectual Disabilities: A Vicious Cycle of Risk and Care Gaps
Background: Cardiovascular diseases (CVDs) are the primary reason for demise and disability worldwide, with a particularly severe problem in low- and middle-income nations. Among individuals with intellectual disabilities (ID), the coexistence of cognitive impairments, mental health conditions, and barriers to medical care significantly increases health risks. Objective: This review discovers the bidirectional connection between cardiovascular disease and mental health disorders in individuals with ID. It aims to classify risk factors, examine care disparities, and evaluate the need for targeted interventions. Methods: A descriptive review methodology was employed. A total of 1,182 articles were initially retrieved from PubMed, Scopus, and PsycINFO using a focused keyword strategy encompassing CVD, mental health, and intellectual disability. After applying inclusion criteria centered on disability relevance and peer-reviewed content, 914 articles were shortlisted. From these, 173 studies were selected based on quality and contextual suitability. Results: The review identified a consistent pattern of underrepresentation of individuals with ID in cardiovascular and psychiatric research despite their increased rates of congenital heart defects, lifestyle-related risk factors, and untreated mental health issues. Diagnostic overshadowing, resource constraints for caregivers, and a lack of appropriately adapted therapies further aggravate their vulnerability. Evidence suggests that caregiver-supported and community-based interventions, when customized for this population, can improve health outcomes. Conclusion: The interplay between cardiovascular disease and mental health in people with ID constitutes a complex clinical and public health challenge. A disability-sensitive research and care framework is urgently needed. Future approaches should focus on early screening, tailored interventions, integrated care models, and inclusive health policies to adequately support this marginalized population.
Innovative Digital Tools for Enhancing Phonemic Awareness among Learners with Mild Cognitive Impairment in Calabar Education Zone of Cross River State, Nigeria
Learners with mild cognitive impairment (MCI) often struggle with reading comprehension, especially auditory discrimination, memory retention, and linguistic processing, which hinders their ability to acquire foundational reading skills through conventional instructional approaches. This pretest-posttest quasi-experimental study investigated the effect of graphic organizers as an instruction strategy on reading comprehension among pupils with MCI in public primary schools within Calabar Education Zone, Cross River State. 80 pupils with MCI were purposively selected. Analysis of Covariance (ANCOVA) and Multiple Classification Analysis (MCA) were used to test the three hypotheses. Results indicated that graphic organizers significantly improved reading comprehension for pupils with MCI (F-ratio = 85.329, p < 0.05), while gender had no significant effect on the outcomes (F-ratio = 0.344, p > 0.05). A significant interaction effect of graphic organizers on reading comprehension improvements was also observed (F-ratio = 0.305, p < 0.05). The findings underscore the necessity of training workshops for educators on the use of graphic organizers and advocate for gender balance in grouping pupils with MCI for such interventions, highlighting the effectiveness of graphic organizers as tools for enhancing reading comprehension in pupils with MCI.
Exploring the use of Assistive Digital Resources in Enhancing Learning for Students with Intellectual Disabilities in Cross River and Akwa Ibom States, Nigeria
Aim: Understanding how these digital resources are being utilized in special education contexts is essential to improving learning outcomes and bridging the digital divide for students with intellectual disabilities. The study examined the use of assistive digital resources to enhance learning for students with intellectual disabilities in Cross River and Akwa Ibom States, Nigeria. Five study objectives were stated to guide the research. Five research questions were formulated, and three hypotheses were stated. A literature review was conducted in line with the study variables. Method: This study adopted a descriptive survey research design. The area of the study is Cross River and Akwa Ibom States. The population of this study comprises all six special education and inclusive schools in Cross River and Akwa Ibom States—709 teachers, school heads, and education officers were directly involved in teaching or supporting students with intellectual disabilities—3,020 Students with intellectual disabilities (where possible, for observational data). A multi-stage sampling technique was used. A purposive sampling was used to select 4 LGAs, stratified sampling was used, and a simple random sampling technique was used. The instrument for data collection is a questionnaire, which was validated by experts in Measurement and Evaluation at the University of Uyo. The instrument was subjected to test reliability using the Cronbach Alpha reliability method. The test result revealed a reliability index of 0.81. Data from the questionnaire was analyzed using descriptive statistics (mean, frequency, percentage) and inferential statistics (Pearson correlation, independent t-test) to test the hypotheses. Results: The results revealed a significant relationship between the availability of assistive digital resources and their utilization level in teaching students with intellectual disabilities. There is also a significant relationship between the use of assistive digital resources and the learning outcomes of students with intellectual disabilities. There is a significant difference between urban and rural schools in the availability of assistive digital learning tools for students with intellectual disabilities. Conclusion: Based on the study's results, it was concluded that there is a significant relationship between the availability of assistive digital resources and their level of utilization in teaching students with intellectual disabilities. There is also a significant relationship between the use of assistive digital resources and the learning outcomes of students with intellectual disabilities. There is a significant difference between urban and rural schools in the availability of assistive digital learning tools for students with intellectual disabilities. Recommendation: Schools and disability support centers should implement peer-mentoring programs and anti-drug clubs that empower students to resist negative peer pressure.
Special Issue: Fostering Inclusive Education and Psychological Wellbeing for Students with Intellectual Disabilities in Nigeria
Emotional Intelligence as a Predictor of Research Skills Acquisition Among University Students with Intellectual Disabilities in Calabar, Nigeria
Aim: Intellectual disability is characterized by significant limitations in intellectual functioning and adaptive behavior originating before age 18 (AAIDD, 2010). In higher education, these students often require individualized support, yet inclusive practices in Nigerian universities remain underdeveloped. This study examines the predictive relationship between emotional intelligence and research skills acquisition among university students with intellectual disabilities at the University of Calabar (UNI.CAL) and the University of Cross River (UNICROSS), Cross River State, Nigeria. Five study objectives were stated to guide the research. Five research questions were formulated, and three hypotheses were stated. Literature was reviewed based on the variables under study, as research gaps were also stated. Method: The study adopted a correlational survey research design. The area of the study is Cross River State, South-South, Nigeria. The study population consists of all 20,030 final-year undergraduate students with intellectual disabilities in inclusive departments of the University of Calabar and the University of Cross River State, offering special education or support for students with disabilities. A purposive sampling technique was used to select students identified with intellectual disabilities. A sample size of 401 participants was selected based on accessibility and consent. The instrument for data collection was a questionnaire. Cronbach Alpha reliability coefficient method was used in establishing the reliability index of .82. Results of the research questions were presented using frequency counts, percentages, mean and standard deviation, and Pearson's Product Moment Correlation, Multiple linear regression, and Independent t-test were used to analyze the research question and hypotheses. Results: The results revealed that emotional intelligence significantly contributes to developing research skills in students with intellectual disabilities. Emotional competencies such as self-awareness, motivation, and interpersonal sensitivity are essential tools in enabling these students to participate fully in research activities. Hence, emotional intelligence components collectively predict research skills acquisition. There is a significant difference between male and female students with intellectual disabilities in their level of research skills acquisition. Conclusion: This research concluded that there is a statistically significant relationship between emotional intelligence and the ability to develop and perform research tasks. It affirms the critical role emotional intelligence plays not just in social functioning but also in academic productivity, especially among students who often face exclusion or limited support. Recommendation: Universities should incorporate emotional intelligence training into their special education and general academic programs to build students’ self-efficacy and research competence.
Self-Correction vs. Lecturer-Correction: Effects on Research Achievement and Alcohol Use in Intellectual Disabled Undergraduates in Federal Universities of Southern Nigeria
Aim: Within Nigerian universities, students with intellectual disabilities remain under-supported in terms of personalized instructional strategies that target both academic improvement and psychosocial well-being. The purpose of the study was to compare self-correction vs Lecturer-correction: Effects on research achievement and Alcohol use in Intellectual Disabled undergraduates in Federal Universities of Southern Nigeria. Method: This study adopted a quasi-experimental research design. The area of the study is Southern Nigeria. The population consists of all 3,092 students with intellectual disabilities enrolled in two selected federal universities in Southern Nigeria, specifically in Cross River and Akwa Ibom States. The sample size for this study was 120 final-year students with intellectual disabilities who depend on alcohol to cope with stress and improve self-esteem using a multi-stage sampling technique. Three instruments were used for data collection. They were the Research Achievement Test (RAT), the Interest Inventory Test (IIT), and the Alcohol Use Screening Tool (modified AUDIT). The screening criteria for alcohol dependence are that students must be 18 years and older, students must have a history of substance use, mental health conditions (depression, anxiety), and a history of use of medications contraindicated with alcohol. The study was validated by Psychology, Measurement, and Evaluation experts at the University of Calabar. The data collected were analyzed for internal consistency using the Cronbach Alpha method, which yielded a reliability index of 0.83. The test scores for the study were generated from pre-tests and post-tests using the Research Methods Achievement Test and Research Method Interest Inventory Test. Mean and standard deviation were used to answer the research questions. The pretest-posttest mean gains of each strategy of the two strategies were computed. Also, the null hypotheses formulated for the study were tested at a 0.05 level of significance using Analysis of Covariance (ANCOVA). Results: The findings revealed that student correction strategies are more effective than lecturer correction strategies in enhancing the research method achievement of students with intellectual disabilities. The self-correction strategy significantly improves student interest in research methods more than the lecturer-led correction approach. There is a significant difference in achievement between male and female students, regardless of the correction strategy used. No statistically significant difference in interest scores between male and female students taught research methods using either lecturer-correction or self-correction strategies. Male and female students differed in their alcohol use outcomes following instruction using either the self-correction or lecturers’ correction strategies. Conclusion: Based on the result of the study, it was concluded that student correction strategies are more effective than lecturer correction strategies in enhancing the research method achievement of students with intellectual disabilities. The self-correction strategy significantly improves student interest in research methods more than the lecturer-led correction approach. There is a significant difference in achievement between male and female students, regardless of the correction strategy used. No statistically significant difference in interest scores between male and female students taught research methods using either lecturer-correction or self-correction strategies. Male and female students differed in their alcohol use outcomes following instruction using either the self-correction or lecturers’ correction strategies. Recommendation: Given the superior effectiveness of student correction strategies over lecturer-led corrections in enhancing students’ achievement in research methods, it is recommended that educators integrate structured self-correction approaches into their teaching. This can be achieved through guided reflection exercises, peer review tasks, and the use of checklists or correction templates that promote independent learning and metacognitive development.
Psychological Implications of Recreational Drug use among Students with Intellectual Disabilities in Nigeria
Aim: The psychological consequences of drug use in individuals with intellectual disabilities can include worsened cognitive deficits, anxiety, aggression, depression, and impaired academic functioning. These effects are often underrecognized due to stigma or limited school support systems. Examine the psychological implications and patterns of recreational drug use among students with intellectual disabilities in Cross River and Akwa Ibom States, Nigeria. Five study objectives were stated to guide the research. Five research questions were formulated, and three hypotheses were stated. Literature was reviewed based on the variables under study. Method: The study adopted a descriptive survey research design. The study was conducted in Cross River and Akwa Ibom States, located in Nigeria's South-South geopolitical zone. The population comprises 1067 students with intellectual disabilities enrolled in public and private special education schools and inclusive education programs. Purposive and stratified random sampling techniques were used. A total sample of 200 respondents were selected for the study. Data was collected using a structured questionnaire. Experts validated the instruments, which were tested for reliability using the Cronbach Alpha reliability method. The test result revealed a reliability index of 0.80. Results of the research questions were presented using frequency counts, percentages, mean and standard deviation. Multiple linear regression was used to analyze the hypothesis. Results: The results revealed that substances such as marijuana, codeine, and tramadol were the most commonly reported. There is a significant relationship between recreational drug use and the psychological well-being of students with intellectual disabilities. Students with intellectual disabilities in Cross River State experience significantly higher psychological implications related to drug use compared to their peers in Akwa Ibom State. Peer influence and neighborhood environment are significant predictors of recreational drug use among students with intellectual disabilities, while family background is not. Conclusion: The findings of this study highlight a disturbing reality: students with intellectual disabilities are at substantial risk of psychological harm due to recreational drug use. Recommendation: Schools and disability support centers should implement peer-mentoring programs, social skills training, and anti-drug clubs that empower students to resist negative peer pressure.